[204], Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there was a reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. [220] Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu. A map of Chandragupta’s empire in 320 BC (Figure 1) indicates that it included the entire present-day Balochistan under Pakistan and extending up to the southeastern end of present-day Afghanistan, including Gandhara, Kandahar, and Kabul Valley. [l], The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. The Chola Empire spread its reign in the whole of South India and also in neighbouring islands like Maldives and Ceylon. [121] Particularly the famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to produce weapons. [201][202][203] Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. [150] The Ulavar community were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. [139][140] Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. [24] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. Epigraphy and literature provide few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. [70], On the other hand, throughout the period from 1150–1280, the staunchest opponents of the Cholas were Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories. [171] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. [55], Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India. [49] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. [citation needed] Two names are prominent among those Chola kings known to have existed who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan. A. L. Frothingham, Jr. Kalā: The Journal of Indian Art History Congress, The Congress, 1995, p.31, ndia: The Most Dangerous Decades by Selig S. Harrison p.31, Between 2 Oceans (2nd Edn): A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971 by Malcolm H. Murfett, John Miksic, Brian Farell, Chiang Ming Shun p.16, South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders by S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar p.40-41, A Global History of Architecture by Francis D. K. Ching, Mark M. Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash p.338, Technology and Society by Menon R.V.G. Apart from reaching northwards to River Ganges and moving overseas to Maldives and Sri Lanka, he also invaded the Southeast Asian territories of Srivijaya in Malaysia, Indonesia and southern Thailand. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor operations) and a waterman. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. [168], There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c. 900-1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known as Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part. [111] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Parantaka Chola II. [112] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of devadana and bramadeya lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. [26] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. "[164], Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077,[165][166] and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. [161][162] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners. [184][185], Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. [81][82], The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. [238] The book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid-1950s. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. [122] The army consisted of people from different castes but the warriors of the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a prominent role. [133] During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. Majumdar (contains no mention of Maldives), Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture by John Bowman p.401. [100], In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government. [229][230] Historian Nilakanta Sastri identifies Krimikanta Chola with Adhirajendra Chola or Virarajendra Chola with whom the main line (Vijayalaya line) ended. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. [195] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. They established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. After this, he entered into a marital alliance with Veera Ballala II (with Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess) and his relationship with Hoysalas seems to have become friendlier.[67][j]. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. who also always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms and fought constantly with the Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, but until the time of the Later Chola king Kulottunga I the Cholas had firm control over Lanka. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. Other famous lakes of this period are Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen). The factual accuracy of this map or the file name is disputed.. Reason: No source for the actual historical boundaries Descreeption: Ootline. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)[a] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. [41][43], Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. [95], According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279. The latter finds mention in the vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the vaishnavas. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. [34][35][36] They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram, nadu or kottam, depending on the area. Author: Venu62 at English Wikipedia File:Rajendra map new.svg is a vector version of this file. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[29][39] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals. p.15, The State at War in South Asia by Pradeep Barua p.17, Temple art under the Chola queens by Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman p.72, Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.159, A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development by Kenneth R. Hall, Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158, India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam, sfnp error: no target: CITEREFIsmail1988 (, Relationship of the Cholas with the Chinese, Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino: and other essays in Philippine history, "The Telugu Cholas of Konidena (A.D. 1050-1300) [Part 1]", UNESCO World Heritage sites – Chola temples, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chola_dynasty&oldid=1021547842, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 5 May 2021, at 09:29. He also pronounced that the great temples of Shiva and the Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners. During his reign, he extended the influence of the Chola empire to the banks of the river Ganga in North India and across the Indian ocean to the West and South East Asia, making the Chola Empire one of the most powerful maritime empires of India. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was named after Vira Chola. [6] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak. From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. The Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade. [89] They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, by defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. Rajendra Chola I became the king of Chola empire after his father Rajaraja Chola. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who was paid annually 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. 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